GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA
India a country in South Asia, that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate.it is the seventh largest country in the world. The country lies to the north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.The total land area of india is 3,287,263 square kilometres .India measures 3,214 km from north to south and 2,993 km from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km and a coastline of 7,517km
India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and to the south by the Indian Ocean. Kanyakumari is the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The southernmost point in India is Indira Point, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are island nations to the south of India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and the narrow channel of Palk Strait. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline.
The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country's political boundaries with China, Bhutan, and Nepal lie. Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Punjab Plain and the Thar Desert. In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separate India from Burma. The Bangladesh–India border is defined by the Khasi hills and Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
The Ganges is the longest river originating in India. The Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers form the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Ganges-Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. On India's western frontier is the Thar Desert.
Kangchenjunga, on the border between Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8,598 m. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine in the upper reaches of the Himalayas.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
India is divided into twenty-eight states and seven union territories.India's borders run a total length of 15,106.70 km.Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km , dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch.Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir. According to India's claim, it also shares a 106 km border with Afghanistan
in northwestern Kashmir, which is under Pakistani control.
India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km .There are 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India are on Bangladeshi soil.The Teen Bigha Corridor is a strip of land formerly belonging to India on the West Bengal–Bangladesh border which has been leased indefinitely to Bangladesh so that it can access its Dehgram–Angalpota enclaves.
The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.Both nations lay claim to the Aksai Chin region of northeastern Kashmir, which fell into Chinese control during the sino-Indian War of 1962.The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km along the southern borders of India's northeastern states. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs 699 km .The border with Nepal runs 1,751 km along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed
sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.
States of india
1)Andhra Pradesh
2)Arunachal Pradesh
3)Assam
4)Bihar
5)Chhattisgarh
6)Goa
7)Gujarat
8)Haryana
9)Himachal Pradesh
10)Jammu and Kashmir
11)Jharkhand
12)Karnataka
13)Kerala
14)Madhya Pradesh
15)Maharashtra
16)Manipur
17)Meghalaya
18)Mizoram
19)Nagaland
20)Orissa
21)Punjab
22)Rajasthan
23)Sikkim
24)Tamil Nadu
25)Tripura
26)Uttar Pradesh
27)Uttarakhand
28)West Bengal
Union territories
1)Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2)Chandigarh
3)Dadra and Nagar Haveli
4)Daman and Diu
5)Lakshadweep
6)National Capital Territory of Delhi
7)Pondicherry
Physiographic regions
India can be divided into six physiographic regions. They are
1)The Himalayan Mountains
2)Northern Plains
3)The Great Indian Desert
4)The Peninsular Plateau
5)Coastal Plains
6)Islands
Himalayas
Himalayas mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. the Himalayan mountain system is the world's highest mountain which include Mount Everest and K2.The main Himalayan range runs west to east, from the Indus river valley to the Brahmaputra river valley, forming an arc 2,400 km long, which varies in width from 400 km in the western Kashmir-Xinjiang region to 150 km in the eastern Tibet-Arunachal Pradesh region. The range consists of three coextensive sub-ranges, with the northernmost, and highest, known as the Great or Inner Himalayas.
Some of the world's major river systems arise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia; many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism.
Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate traveling northward at 15 cm per year to impact the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted since the lighter rock of the seabeds of that time were easily uplifted into mountains.
origin and growth of himalayas
The Himalayas are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. This is referred to as a fold mountain.
The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm per year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision
.
The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.
Glaciers and river systems from himalaya
The Himalayan range contain about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 of freshwater. The 70 km-long Siachen Glacier at the India-Pakistan border is the second longest glacier in the world outside the polar region. Some of the other more famous glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand), Nubra, Biafo and Baltoro (Karakoram region), Zemu (Sikkim) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region).
The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources for several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems:
The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin, of which the Indus River is the largest. The Indus begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows southwest through India and then through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. It is fed by the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej rivers, among others.
Most of the other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin. Its two main rivers are the Ganges and the Brahmaputra and the Yamuna, among other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of Assam. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra meet in Bangladesh, and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the world's largest river delta.
The eastern-most Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.
INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN/NORTHERN PLAIN
The northern Plains also known as the Indo - Gangetic Plain and The North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most populous parts of Pakistan, parts of southern Nepal and virtually all of Bangladesh. The region is named after the Indus and the Ganges, the twin river systems that drain it.
The plain's population density is very high due to the fertile soil for farming.
The plains support one of the most populous areas on Earth, being home to nearly 1 billion people on 700,000 km² . Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain are Ludhiana, Amritsar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati, Dhaka, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Multan, Hyderabad and Karachi. In this region, it is hard to define where one megalopolis begins and one ends.
The Indo-Gangetic plain is bound on the north by the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the west rises the Iranian Plateau.
Division of indo-gangetic plain
Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valley,
the Punjab Plain,
the Haryana Plains, and
the middle and lower Ganges.
These regional distinctions are based primarily on the availability of water.
By another definition, the Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part consists of the Ganges–Bramaputra drainage systems. This divide is only 300 metres above sea level, causing the perception that the Indo-Gangetic Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins.
Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water, which reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valley in Pakistan. The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana farmers are controversial, due to the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan.
The middle Ganges extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganges and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganges.
The lower Ganges is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into India After joining the Yamuna, both rivers form the Ganges Delta.
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh.
In India the Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert)It lies mostly in the Indian State of Rajasthan, and extends into the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert covers eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. The Cholistan Desert adjoins the Thar desert spreading into Pakistani Punjab province
Origin
The origin of the Thar Desert is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier.Another theory states that area turned to desert relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar-Hakra ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert but at one time was a water source for the Indus Valley Civilization centre of Mohenjo-daro.
It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist.
Most studies did not share the opinion that the palaeochannels of the Sarasvati River coincide with the bed of the present-day Ghaggar and believe that the Sutlej along with the Yamuna once flowed into the present riverbed. It has been postulated that the Sutlej was the main tributary of the Ghaggar and that subsequently the tectonic movements might have forced the Sutlej westwards, the Yamuna eastwards and thus dried up the Ghaggar-Hakra.
Thar in ancient literature
The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean).
Ramayana mentions about Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to dry up the sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Jambūdvīpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean)
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.
There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar river.
Mahabharata mentions about Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River. It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert, near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganga and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River. There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11).
In Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Aśvanvatī along with river Drishadvati. Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Aśvanvatī the same river.
The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.
The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old. Some fossils of Dinosaurs of 6 million years old have also been found in the area
Biodiversity
Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.
Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii) and the Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor. Other mammals of the Thar area include a subspecies of Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and a wild cat, the caracal.
The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. Short-toed Eagles (Circaetus gallicus), Tawny Eagles (Aquila rapax), Spotted Eagles (Aquila clanga), Laggar Falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels. There are also a number of reptiles.
The Indian Peafowl is a resident breeder in the Indian subcontinent particularly Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan). It can be seen sitting on Khejri or Pipal trees in villages or Deblina.
Islands
The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations and are classified as union territories. The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 300 km (120 to 190 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea with an area of 32 km2 (12 sq mi). They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 36 islands and islets.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.[30] They consist of 572 isles, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar.[30] The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands.
The Andaman Islands consists of 204 small islands across a total length of 352 km (219 mi). India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in May 2005. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).
Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese enclave; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.
List of islands in india
Andaman Islands
Barren Island
Great Andaman
Little Andaman
Ritchie's Archipelago
Sentinel Islands
Islands of the Cauvery River
Srirangapatna
Shivanasamudram
Sri Rangam
Chorao, Goa
Diu
Divar, Goa
Lakshadweep
Majuli fluvial island
Minicoy Island
Monroe Island, Kollam, Kerala
Islands of Mumbai Harbour
Butcher Island (Mumbai)
Cross Island
Elephanta Island
Middle Ground
Oyster Rock
Salsette Island
Nicobar Islands
Great Nicobar
Car Nicobar
Rameswaram
Sriharikota
Vashee, Goa
Vypin, Kochi, Kerala
Willington Island, Kochi, Kerala
Kavvayi
Quibble Island
India a country in South Asia, that lies entirely on the Indian Plate in the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate.it is the seventh largest country in the world. The country lies to the north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.The total land area of india is 3,287,263 square kilometres .India measures 3,214 km from north to south and 2,993 km from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km and a coastline of 7,517km
India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and to the south by the Indian Ocean. Kanyakumari is the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The southernmost point in India is Indira Point, in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.The Maldives, Sri Lanka and Indonesia are island nations to the south of India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and the narrow channel of Palk Strait. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline.
The Ganges is the longest river originating in India. The Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers form the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Ganges-Brahmaputra system occupies most of northern, central, and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. On India's western frontier is the Thar Desert.
Kangchenjunga, on the border between Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim, is the highest point in India at 8,598 m. Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far south, to alpine in the upper reaches of the Himalayas.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
India is divided into twenty-eight states and seven union territories.India's borders run a total length of 15,106.70 km.Its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh, which was created in 1947 during Partition of India. Its western border with Pakistan extends up to 3,323 km , dividing the Punjab region and running along the boundaries of the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch.Both nations delineated a Line of Control (LoC) to serve as the informal boundary between the Indian and Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir. According to India's claim, it also shares a 106 km border with Afghanistan
in northwestern Kashmir, which is under Pakistani control.
India's border with Bangladesh runs 4,096.70 km .There are 92 enclaves of Bangladesh on Indian soil and 106 enclaves of India are on Bangladeshi soil.The Teen Bigha Corridor is a strip of land formerly belonging to India on the West Bengal–Bangladesh border which has been leased indefinitely to Bangladesh so that it can access its Dehgram–Angalpota enclaves.
The Line of Actual Control (LAC) is the effective border between India and the People's Republic of China. It traverses 4,057 km along the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.Both nations lay claim to the Aksai Chin region of northeastern Kashmir, which fell into Chinese control during the sino-Indian War of 1962.The border with Burma (Myanmar) extends up to 1,643 km along the southern borders of India's northeastern states. Located amidst the Himalayan range, India's border with Bhutan runs 699 km .The border with Nepal runs 1,751 km along the foothills of the Himalayas in northern India.The Siliguri Corridor, narrowed
sharply by the borders of Bhutan, Nepal and Bangladesh, connects peninsular India with the northeastern states.
States of india
1)Andhra Pradesh
3)Assam
4)Bihar
5)Chhattisgarh
6)Goa
7)Gujarat
8)Haryana
9)Himachal Pradesh
10)Jammu and Kashmir
11)Jharkhand
12)Karnataka
13)Kerala
14)Madhya Pradesh
15)Maharashtra
16)Manipur
17)Meghalaya
18)Mizoram
19)Nagaland
20)Orissa
21)Punjab
22)Rajasthan
23)Sikkim
24)Tamil Nadu
25)Tripura
26)Uttar Pradesh
27)Uttarakhand
28)West Bengal
Union territories
1)Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2)Chandigarh
3)Dadra and Nagar Haveli
4)Daman and Diu
5)Lakshadweep
6)National Capital Territory of Delhi
7)Pondicherry
Physiographic regions
India can be divided into six physiographic regions. They are
2)Northern Plains
3)The Great Indian Desert
4)The Peninsular Plateau
5)Coastal Plains
6)Islands
Himalayas
Himalayas mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. the Himalayan mountain system is the world's highest mountain which include Mount Everest and K2.The main Himalayan range runs west to east, from the Indus river valley to the Brahmaputra river valley, forming an arc 2,400 km long, which varies in width from 400 km in the western Kashmir-Xinjiang region to 150 km in the eastern Tibet-Arunachal Pradesh region. The range consists of three coextensive sub-ranges, with the northernmost, and highest, known as the Great or Inner Himalayas.
Some of the world's major river systems arise in the Himalayas. The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia; many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism.
Geologically, the origin of the Himalayas is the impact of the Indian tectonic plate traveling northward at 15 cm per year to impact the Eurasian continent, about 40-50 million years ago. The formation of the Himalayan arc resulted since the lighter rock of the seabeds of that time were easily uplifted into mountains.
origin and growth of himalayas
The Himalayas are among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consist mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. According to the modern theory of plate tectonics, their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. This is referred to as a fold mountain.
The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm per year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, this fast moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards. The Arakan Yoma highlands in Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal were also formed as a result of this collision
The Indo-Australian plate is still moving at 67 mm per year, and over the next 10 million years it will travel about 1,500 km into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by thrusting along the Himalaya southern front. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region seismically active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.
Glaciers and river systems from himalaya
The Himalayan range contain about 15,000 glaciers, which store about 12,000 km3 of freshwater. The 70 km-long Siachen Glacier at the India-Pakistan border is the second longest glacier in the world outside the polar region. Some of the other more famous glaciers include the Gangotri and Yamunotri (Uttarakhand), Nubra, Biafo and Baltoro (Karakoram region), Zemu (Sikkim) and Khumbu glaciers (Mount Everest region).
The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources for several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems:
The western rivers combine into the Indus Basin, of which the Indus River is the largest. The Indus begins in Tibet at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers and flows southwest through India and then through Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. It is fed by the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej rivers, among others.
Most of the other Himalayan rivers drain the Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin. Its two main rivers are the Ganges and the Brahmaputra and the Yamuna, among other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of Assam. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra meet in Bangladesh, and drain into the Bay of Bengal through the world's largest river delta.
The eastern-most Himalayan rivers feed the Ayeyarwady River, which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the Andaman Sea.
INDO-GANGETIC PLAIN/NORTHERN PLAIN
The northern Plains also known as the Indo - Gangetic Plain and The North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, the most populous parts of Pakistan, parts of southern Nepal and virtually all of Bangladesh. The region is named after the Indus and the Ganges, the twin river systems that drain it.
The plain's population density is very high due to the fertile soil for farming.
The plains support one of the most populous areas on Earth, being home to nearly 1 billion people on 700,000 km² . Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain are Ludhiana, Amritsar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jaipur, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati, Dhaka, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Multan, Hyderabad and Karachi. In this region, it is hard to define where one megalopolis begins and one ends.
The Indo-Gangetic plain is bound on the north by the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the west rises the Iranian Plateau.
Division of indo-gangetic plain
Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valley,
the Punjab Plain,
the Haryana Plains, and
the middle and lower Ganges.
These regional distinctions are based primarily on the availability of water.
By another definition, the Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge; the western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part consists of the Ganges–Bramaputra drainage systems. This divide is only 300 metres above sea level, causing the perception that the Indo-Gangetic Plain appears to be continuous between the two drainage basins.
Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water, which reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valley in Pakistan. The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana farmers are controversial, due to the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan.
The middle Ganges extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganges and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganges.
The lower Ganges is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into India After joining the Yamuna, both rivers form the Ganges Delta.
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh.
Farming
farming on the Indo-Gangetic Plain primarily consists of rice and wheat grown in rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane, and cotton.The main source of rainfall is the southwest monsoon which is normally sufficient for general agriculture. The many rivers flowing out of the Himalayas provide water for major irrigation works.
Due to a rapidly growing population (as well as other factors), this area is considered at high risk for water shortages in the future. This area constitutes the land between the river Brahmaputra and Aravli mountain ranges, the famous river Ganges,Yamuna,Ghaggra,Chambal and Brahmaputra flow through the area
History
The region is known for the Indus Valley Civilization, centered in Pakistan, which was responsible for the birth of ancient South Asian culture. The flat and fertile terrain has facilitated the repeated rise and expansion of various empires, including the Gupta empire, Kanauj, Magadha, the Maurya Empire, the Mughal Empire and the Sultanate of Delhi – all of which had their demographic and political centers in the Indo-Gangetic plain. During the Vedic and Epic eras of Indian history, this region was referred to as "Aryavarta" (Land of the Aryans) which was bordered on the west by the Indus river and on the south by the Vindhya Mountain range. During the Islamic period, the Turkish, Afghan and Iranian rulers referred to this region as "Hindustan" (Land of the Hindus), deriving from the Persian term for the Indus River. This term was later used to refer to the whole of India but even into the modern era, the dialect of Hindi-Urdu spoken in this region is called Hindustani, a term which is also used for the local music and culture.
Both British and independent India also had their demographic and political centers here (first in Calcutta and then Delhi).
THAR DESERT/GREAT INDIAN DESERT
In India the Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert)It lies mostly in the Indian State of Rajasthan, and extends into the southern portion of Haryana and Punjab states and into northern Gujarat state. In Pakistan, the desert covers eastern Sindh province and the southeastern portion of Pakistan's Punjab province. The Cholistan Desert adjoins the Thar desert spreading into Pakistani Punjab province
Origin
The origin of the Thar Desert is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier.Another theory states that area turned to desert relatively recently: perhaps around 2000 - 1500 BC. Around this time the Ghaggar-Hakra ceased to be a major river. It now terminates in the desert but at one time was a water source for the Indus Valley Civilization centre of Mohenjo-daro.
It has been observed through remote sensing techniques that Late Quaternary climatic changes and neotectonics have played a significant role in modifying the drainage courses in this part and a large number of palaeochannels exist.
Most studies did not share the opinion that the palaeochannels of the Sarasvati River coincide with the bed of the present-day Ghaggar and believe that the Sutlej along with the Yamuna once flowed into the present riverbed. It has been postulated that the Sutlej was the main tributary of the Ghaggar and that subsequently the tectonic movements might have forced the Sutlej westwards, the Yamuna eastwards and thus dried up the Ghaggar-Hakra.
Thar in ancient literature
The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean).
Ramayana mentions about Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to dry up the sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of Roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Jambūdvīpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean)
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.
There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar river.
Mahabharata mentions about Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River. It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert, near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganga and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River. There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11).
In Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Aśvanvatī along with river Drishadvati. Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Aśvanvatī the same river.
The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.
The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old. Some fossils of Dinosaurs of 6 million years old have also been found in the area
Biodiversity
Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.
Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), the Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), the Indian Gazelle (Gazella bennettii) and the Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor. Other mammals of the Thar area include a subspecies of Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and a wild cat, the caracal.
The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. Short-toed Eagles (Circaetus gallicus), Tawny Eagles (Aquila rapax), Spotted Eagles (Aquila clanga), Laggar Falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels. There are also a number of reptiles.
The Indian Peafowl is a resident breeder in the Indian subcontinent particularly Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan). It can be seen sitting on Khejri or Pipal trees in villages or Deblina.
Islands
The Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are India's two major island formations and are classified as union territories. The Lakshadweep Islands lie 200 to 300 km (120 to 190 mi) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea with an area of 32 km2 (12 sq mi). They consist of twelve atolls, three reefs, and five submerged banks, with a total of about 36 islands and islets.
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located between 6° and 14° north latitude and 92° and 94° east longitude.[30] They consist of 572 isles, lying in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. They are located 1,255 km (780 mi) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 mi) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar.[30] The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands.
The Andaman Islands consists of 204 small islands across a total length of 352 km (219 mi). India's only active volcano, Barren Island is situated here. It last erupted in May 2005. The Narcondum is a dormant volcano and there is a mud volcano at Baratang. Indira Point, India's southernmost land point, is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 mi) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, to the southeast. The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,106 ft).
Other significant islands in India include Diu, a former Portuguese enclave; Majuli, a river island of the Brahmaputra; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota, a barrier island in Andhra Pradesh. Salsette Island is India's most populous island on which the city of Mumbai (Bombay) is located. Forty-two islands in the Gulf of Kutch constitute the Marine National Park.
Andaman Islands
Barren Island
Great Andaman
Little Andaman
Sentinel Islands
Islands of the Cauvery River
Srirangapatna
Shivanasamudram
Sri Rangam
Chorao, Goa
Diu
Divar, Goa
Lakshadweep
Majuli fluvial island
Minicoy Island
Monroe Island, Kollam, Kerala
Islands of Mumbai Harbour
Butcher Island (Mumbai)
Cross Island
Elephanta Island
Middle Ground
Oyster Rock
Salsette Island
Nicobar Islands
Great Nicobar
Car Nicobar
Rameswaram
Sriharikota
Vashee, Goa
Vypin, Kochi, Kerala
Willington Island, Kochi, Kerala
Kavvayi
Quibble Island